A Brief Note On Progressive Tax And Tax - 955 Words

A progressive tax is a tax in which the rate of the tax increases when the taxable amount increases. Progressive taxation is the process in which the tax rates increases form low to high according to the income of the people. United States currently has this type of taxation method. Progressive taxation helps in the income inequality, maintains social justice and furthermore adds more revenue to the government. Tax plays an important role any country. There is no country which can run without the tax. Money that is raised by the taxation is used by government to do the day to day work of the country. The military, social service, officer and the other governmental works run with the help of collected revenue from tax. The developmental works also run with the help of tax. Without taxation, the government cannot run its day to day work. Yes, we should worry about taxes that have a regressive effect on the taxpayer. Regressive tax increases the burden on the on the poor people and redu ces the burden of the high class people. There is an unequal distribution of income in the American society. The differences in the income of the class of the people is increasing. And the market alone cannot determine the income distribution in the society. There is a large gap between the class of the people due to the unequal distribution of the income and wealth. The gap between the rich and poor will increase and more people will come under the line of poverty if there was no attempt ofShow MoreRelatedCharacteristics Of A Good Taxation System1109 Words   |  5 Pagesfinance public education are: -Property tax-local income designated from land ownership. -Personal and Corporate Income tax-personal tax is progressive and based on an annual income. Corporate is based on the profit income of that company. -Sales tax- State produced percentage of retail goods, not including food. 3. What is a circuit breaker? A circuit breaker principle is in place as to not over burden a person with a low income. It creates a cap on the property tax with certain restrictions. 4. ListRead MoreMonetary Equality : The United States And France1713 Words   |  7 Pageshigher income stimulate the economy. Nevertheless, it is important to note the undeniable, vast differences found in the class systems within the United States. Thomas Piketty, a renowned French economist, explained this predicament in the article Marx 2.0, â€Å"the 1% in America right now is still a bit lower than the 1% in prerevolutionary France, but it’s getting close (48).† With good intentions, Piketty’s proposition is too progressive for American standards . According to the executive summary of Piketty’Read MoreThe United States And The American Revolution1707 Words   |  7 Pageshigher income stimulate the economy. Nevertheless, it is important to note the undeniable, vast difference in class systems within the United States. Thomas Piketty, a renowned French economist, explained this predicament in the article Marx 2.0, â€Å"the 1% in America right now is still a bit lower than the 1% in prerevolutionary France, but it’s getting close (48).† With good intentions, Piketty’s proposition is too progressive for American standards . According to the executive summary of Piketty’Read MoreAnalysis Of The Liberal Minority Government791 Words   |  4 Pagestake a look at what Prime Minister Justin Trudeau says his Liberal majority government got done in the first half of 2017. The quotes here are from Trudeau’s statement, released this afternoon as MPs headed home for Parliament’s summer break, and the brief comments provide links to stories, columns and expert analysis: â€Å"Between February and June, I signed agreements with the leaders of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Assembly of First Nations, and the Mà ©tis National Council, establishing a process to advanceRead MoreEssay about Modern History - Decline and Fall of the Romanov1156 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿MODERN STUDY NOTES: TITLE SUBHEADING NOTES Decline and Fall of the Romanov Dynasty Nicholas II as an Autocrat Nicholas II: Weak and indecisive leader; gentle. Uneducated. Tsar refused to move with times; see changes and reforms. Close relations with Queen Victoria. Manipulated/Heavily influenced by wife Tsarina Alexandra. Austrian princess – granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Pressured Nicholas to preserve autocracy. 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We will also explain why we chose this specific business, whatRead MoreHoward Zinn Chapter 131427 Words   |  6 PagesChapter 13 Zinn opens chapter with the recognition that â€Å"war and jingoism might postpone, but could not fully suppress, the class anger that came from the realities of ordinary life†.   Despite the brief interlude that momentarily quelled class conflict, the issues at home had never been resolved and resurfaced with a vengeance.   More and more writers were writing from a Socialist mindset:   Upton Sinclair published  The Jungle  in 1906, as a commentary on Chicago’s meatpacking industry.  In writingRead MoreEssay on The Four Political Parties Of Canada4255 Words   |  18 PagesNewfoundland, political opinions and affiliations range from the left wing to the right wing. To represent these varying political views, Canada has four official national political parties to choose from: the Liberals (who are currently in power), the Progressive Conservatives, the New Democrats, and the Reform Party. What is particularly interesting is that none of the latter three parties compose Her Majestys Official Opposition in the House of Commons. The Bloc Quebecois, a Quebec separatist partyRead More Arguments Regarding the US Economy from Conservative and Liberal Mindsets6662 Words   |  27 Pagesindividual freedom. Both view governments role as a limited one, to varying degrees. They support majority rule and the due process of law. Both generally support the reforms made in the New Deal, such as social security, income tax, and welfare. (Goshen, Chapter 10 Notes) Republicans tend to be conservative and Democrats tend to be liberal. If you were to summarize the Republican philosophy on the economy, you would see three prevailing points. The party supports minimal government, lowerRead MoreTransfer Pricing20501 Words   |  83 PagesTransfer Pricing in Developing Countries An Introduction Topics 1. Abstract 2. International tax law its sources 3. Brief history of International Tax Law 4. Who gets the pie? 5. Arm s length principle : Cornerstone of International Tax Law 6. Transfer pricing methods 7. Problems with of source taxation of MNE s 8. Internet e-commerce : Achilles heel of current International taxation regime? 9. Formulary Apportionment (FA) 10. Existing uses of Formulary Apportionment systems in the world

Dystopian Novels - 901 Words

According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, a dystopia is defined as â€Å"an imaginary place where people lead dehumanized and often fearful lives† or an â€Å"anti-utopia†. The word â€Å"utopia† was first coined by Plato and later used by Sir Thomas More in 1516 in his book Utopia. The book features a fictional island named Utopia and all its customs. This book prompted and generated more innovative genres, including that of dystopian novels. Dystopian novels, like any other well-written novel, contain a strongly developed protagonist and a mysterious, controlling antagonist. Often, the author labels the government or leader of the corrupt society as the antagonist. The authors have a propensity to use the ignored social injustices in modern society and†¦show more content†¦Winston and Julia were lucky; they kept their lives, just not their beliefs. In Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, society has become dehumanized and focuses solely on human pleasure and stability with the help of science. A new technique called the Bokanovsky process creates children within test tubes and conditions them to fill a certain role within the community. This process removes the need for sex as means of reproduction, and it becomes purely recreational. Bernard Marx is the central character for most of the novel. The other characters in the book consider his looks and actions strange and not uniform. He lusts for a young woman named Lenina. When Lenina finally agrees to go on a date with Bernard, he takes her to see the Reservation. The Reservation sounds primitive, but in reality, the humans living on the Reservation behave and survive like people in today’s society. During their visit, Lenina and Bernard find a woman and a young boy living on the reservation that originated in the city but were left behind in a catastrophic accident. Bernard brings the two back, but adjusting to modern society proves to be a difficult task. The woman consta ntly drugs herself and stays in a dream-like reality. The son, who had previously never been exposed to the new â€Å"city-life,† refuses to conform. Bernard uses his new popularity to condemn the caste system publicly. After aShow MoreRelatedDystopian Fiction : Dystopian Novel1559 Words   |  7 PagesWhy is dystopian fiction important? Some may say that it is because of the high-tension environments, the action, or the gripping storylines. While those aspects certainly play a significant role in the continued success of dystopian fiction, being well-written stories is not the only goal. This paper will detail various reasons why dystopian fiction continues to be popular and successful with all audiences, using The Hunger Games, Divergent, The Giver, and Ready Player One as examples. In orderRead MoreDystopian Novel, The Lord Of The Flies1736 Words   |  7 Pagesenvironmentally degrading government. A dystopian novel can be described as a dark vision of our future. Based off all of the works read the character’s fit into the dystopian lifestyle. The dystopian lifestyle practiced by the characters can also depict the way other people felt during time of the dystopian time period. Many of the people affected were not able to survive, and therefore turned themselves in for death or for other unsettling situations. In the novel, The Lord of The Flies, by WilliamRead MoreDystopian Novels : A Dystopian Novel1943 Words   |  8 Pagesand conformity are often central themes in dystopian novels. The basic idea is that the world is not perfect and by controlling every aspect of society, it controls the terrible things that may take place. The purpose of a dystopian novel is to explore structures that we don’t think about, whether it be in a political or social sense. These types of readings focus on imaginary societies where individuals don’t have free will. This is what makes a dystopian and utopian different from one another. TodayRead MoreThe Dystopian Novel Of Literature2214 Words   |  9 Pagesgeneral population aware of large problems that need to be fixed. This genre of course is the Dystopian one. Every single dystopian piece of literature is not just a book with a lesson in it, but a warning. Almost all dystopian books pick at flaws that the author has seen in their society, and the book just is an alternate universe in some sorts where those flaws were never fixed. And of course with these dystopian books their needs to be a concrete style to go with them. Most of these books have usuallyRead MoreWhat are Dystopian Novels?966 Words   |  4 PagesDystopia is common theme which dates hundreds of years in literature worldwide. Dystopian novels and short stories often depict a society repressed by a totalitarian government which comes to power after a cataclysmic occurrence, wielding unforgiving power and control over inhabitants for their own good. These dystopias are often perceived by the average citizen as a normal or unavoidable way of life, sometimes even a better way of life, yet there is often a single person or group of protagonistsRead MoreIs 1984 A Dystopian Novel Analysis1251 Words   |  6 PagesAhmed Ali College Prep Senior English Mr Arcuri 7th September 2017 Why 1984 is a Dystopian novel A dystopian novel is a story relating to or denoting an imagined place or state in which everything is unpleasant or bad, typically a totalitarian or environmentally degraded one. 1984 by George Orwell, is indeed a dystopian novel as it describes a nightmare vision of future society which is opposite to a perfect world. George Orwell creates this image using a few different techniques including,Read MoreThe Masses And The Dystopian Novel Elysium Essay1557 Words   |  7 PagesThe connection between these texts is they all feature compliancy of the masses, and all feature in some form of dystopian worlds. The texts all feature varying forms of dystopia, Bioshock features a dystopia brought on by evolutionary war, whereas brave new world features a world where the state has unlimited control over the technology and the people that rely on it. Paragraph 1 In Elysium, the film has an imaginary space station called â€Å"Elysium† this station hold only the most elite people, everybodyRead MoreThe Dystopian Novel By Margaret Atwood1991 Words   |  8 PagesThe dystopian novel written by Canadian author Margaret Atwood, is a twisting futuristic forecast of what a religious intolerant society is leading itself into with a totalitarian government with traditional Old Testament values, who do not see women as anything more than vessels to continue the human population. This story spins from a government takeover to the oppression of women under the rule of the new theocratic government known as The Republic of Gilead, whose agenda was to reclaim the dyingRead MoreThe Dystopian Society Of The Novel 1984 1602 Words   |  7 Pages Every country has some type of government that facilitates its citizens. Citizens are taught to trust these high ranking officials, but can we really? The novel 1984 warns readers of what could happen if people mindlessly follow their leaders without knowing the entire situation. The dystopian society in the book, Oceania, is supposed to portray our country. They have a totalitarian government where they all worship this public figure called Big Brother, and their whole country is revolved aroundRead MoreThe Dystopian Novel 1984 By George Orwell907 Words   |  4 Pagesrestricted.The citizens live in a dehumanized state with fear of the outside world and are given the illusion that the world they live in is a perfect utopia. The key characteristics of a dystopian society is constant surveillance where propaganda controls the people. Individuality And dissent are bad. In the dystopian novel 1984 by george orwell, the citizens conform to the government and worship a figurehead by the name of big brother. They are constantly watched by telescreens, and don t have a

Consumer Behavior Theory free essay sample

Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models â€Å"consumer behaviour†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ is the study of the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use or dispose of products, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy needs and desires. † (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006, p6). (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007) take a similar approach in defining consumer behaviour: â€Å"the behavior that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs† (p. 3). While most contemporary definitions of consumer behaviour are similar in cope, section 1. 2 will identify and discuss the differing psychological approaches that have been applied to research in this area. 1. 2 Theoretical approaches to the study of consumer behaviour A number of different approaches have been adopted in the study of decision making, drawing on differing traditions of psychology. Writers suggest differe nt typological classifications of these works with five major approaches emerging. Each of these five approaches posit alternate models of man, and emphasise the need to examine quite different variables (Foxall 1990); they will briefly be introduced in turn. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Economic Man Psychodynamic Behaviourist Cognitive Humanistic 3 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 3 Economic Man As identified in section 1. 1, early research regarded man as entirely rational and self interested, making decisions based upon the ability to maximise utility whilst expending the minimum effort. While work in this area began around 300 years ago (Richarme 2007), the term ‘economic man’ (or even Homo economicus (Persky 1995)) was first used in the late 19th century (Persky 1995) at the start of more sustained research in the area. In order to behave rationally in the economic sense, as this approach suggests, a consumer would have to be aware of all the available consumption options, be capable of correctly rating each alternative and be available to select the optimum course of action (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). These steps are no longer seen to be a realistic account of human decision making, as consumers rarely have adequate information, motivation or time to make such a ‘perfect’ decision and are often acted upon by less rational influences such as social relationships and values (Simon 1997). Furthermore, ndividuals are often described as seeking satisfactory rather than optimum choices, as highlighted by Herbert Simons Satisficing Theory (Simon 1997), or Kahneman and Tversky’s Prospect Theory (Kahneman ANDTversky 1979) which embrace bounded rationality (Simon 1991). 1. 4 Psychodynamic Approach The psychodynamic tradition within psychology is widely attributed to the work of Sigmund Fre ud (1856-1939) (Stewart 1994). This view posits that behaviour is subject to biological influence through ‘instinctive forces’ or ‘drives’ which act outside of conscious thought (Arnold,Robertson et al. 1991). While Freud identified three facets of the psyche, namely the Id, the Ego and the Superego (Freud 1923), other theorists working within this tradition, most notably Jung, identified different drives (Ribeaux ANDPoppleton 1978). The key tenet of the psychodynamic approach is that behaviour is determined by biological drives, rather than individual cognition, or environmental stimuli. 4 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 5 Behaviourist Approach In 1920 John B. Watson published a landmark study into behaviour which became known as ‘Little Albert’ (Watson ANDRayner 1920). This study involved teaching a small child (Albert) to fear otherwise benign objects through repeated pairing with loud noises. The study proved that behaviour can be learned by external events and thus largely discredited the Psychodynamic approach that was predominant at the time. Essentially Behaviourism is a family of philosophies stating that behaviour is explained by external events, and that all things that organisms do, including actions, thoughts and feelings can be regarded as behaviours. The causation of behaviour is attributed to factors external to the individual. The most influential proponents of the behavioural approach were Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) who investigated classical conditioning, John Watson (1878-1958) who rejected introspective methods and Burrhus Skinner (1904-1990) who developed operant conditioning. Each of these developments relied heavily on logical positivism purporting that objective and empirical methods used in the physical sciences can be applied to the study of consumer behaviour (Eysenck ANDKeane 2000). There are a number of branches of research that conform to the major tenets of behaviourism, but differ subtly in other ways. Initially ‘Classical Behaviourism’, established by John Watson, required the entirely objective study of behaviour, with no mental life or internal states being accepted. Human thoughts were regarded by Watson as ‘covert’ speech (Sternberg 1996), and strict monism was adhered to (Foxall 1990). Between 1930 and 1950 Skinner founded ‘Radical Behaviourism’ which acknowledges the existence of feelings, states of mind and introspection, however still regards these factors as epiphenomenal (Skinner 1938);(Nye 1979). The assumed role of internal processes continued to evolve in subsequent decades, leading to more cognitive approaches with a new branch of study ‘Cognitive Behaviourism’ claiming that intrapersonal cognitive events and processes are causative and the primary irreducible determinants of overt behaviour (Hillner 1984, p107). 5 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models While behavioural research still contributes to our understanding of human behaviour, it is now widely recognised as being only part of any possible full explanation (Stewart 1994). Behaviourism does not appear to adequately account for the great diversity of response generated by a population exposed to similar, or even near identical stimuli. 1. 6 Cognitive Approach In stark contrast to the foundations of Classical Behaviouralism, the cognitive approach ascribes observed action (behaviour) to intrapersonal cognition. The individual is viewed as an ‘information processor’ (Ribeaux ANDPoppleton 1978). This intrapersonal causation clearly challenges the explicative power of environmental variables suggested in Behavioural approaches, however an influential role of the environment and social experience is acknowledged, with consumers actively seeking and receiving environmental and social stimuli as informational inputs aiding internal decision making (Stewart 1994). The Cognitive approach is derived in a large part from Cognitive Psychology which can trace its roots back to early philosophers such as Socrates who was interested in the origins of knowledge (Plato 360 B. C. ), Aristotle who proposed the first theory of memory (Aristotle 350 B. C. ) and Descartes who explored how knowledge is represented mentally in his Meditations (Descartes 1640) (Sternberg 1996). It was not until the middle of the 21st Century however, that Cognitive Psychology truly emerged as a mainstream and useful field of study with the development of the Stimulus-Organism-Response model by Hebb during the 1950’s (Figure 1. 1) (Cziko 2000) and the publication of the landmark text by Ulric Neisser in 1967 (Neisser 1967). From this point many writers suggested that Cognitivism had taken over from Behaviourism as the dominant paradigmatic approach to decision research (Furedy ANDRiley 1987). 6 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 1: Stimulus-Organism-Response Model of Decision Making Stimulus Organism Response Source: (Cziko 2000) While there are distinct branches of cognitive psychology, they all share an abiding interest in exploring and understanding the mental structures and processes which mediate between stimulus and response (Kihlstrom 1987). Contemporary Cognitive Psychology has identified and developed a wide range of factors which are thought fundamental to these intrapersonal processes including: perception, learning, memory, thinking, emotion and motivation (Sternberg 1996). While this is far from a complete list of the possible constructs at play, it does serve to outline the complexity and multiplicity of issues inherent with this approach. Early Stimulus-Organism-Response models (as depicted in Figure 1. 1) suggest a linear relationship between the three stages with environmental and social stimuli acting as external antecedents to the organism. This approach assumes that stimuli act upon an inactive and unprepared organism (Eysenck ANDKeane 2000). Most modern theorists now, however, acknowledge that information processing is conducted by an active organism whose past experience will influence not only the processing of such information but even what information is sought and received. Information processing will be both stimulus driven and concept driven (Moital 2007); (Groome,Dewart et al. 1999). This development has resulted in more recent depictions of consumer decision making being circular in fashion (Peter ANDOlson 2008), or drawn through a Venn diagram (Jacoby 2002). Despite coming from a Radical Behavioural perspective, Foxall (1990 p. 18) identifies four key strengths of cognitivism as a means of explaining consumer behaviour: 7 of 33 Jeff Bray †¢ Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Its closeness to the common-sense explanations of everyday discourse make it an intuitively attractive means of offering explanations of everyday behaviours such as purchasing and consuming; †¢ The ability of consumers to describe their experiences in terms of their attitudes, wants, needs and motives ensures that an explanation proceeds in the same terms as the description of what is explained; †¢ †¢ It brings a measure of unity and consensus to a still young field of inquiry; The extensive use made by other social science and humanity disciplines of cognitive explanation has assisted the conceptual development of this line of consumer research by making possible the borrowing of theoretical and methodological inputs. Furthermore, Cognitivism has the capacity to explain complex behaviours, an acknowledged deficiency of the competing Behavioural perspective where it is impossible to ascertain the contingencies that control response (Foxall 1993). However, the cognitive approach is also criticised for a number of reasons. Foxall comments that the cognitive approach â€Å"†¦relies extensively upon the use of abstract and unobservable explanatory variables which seldom prove amenable to empirical investigation and evaluation† (1990 p. 96). Additionally, cognitivism assumes the consumer is rational, discerning, logical and active in decision making; assumptions that have been questioned by a number of writers (Bozinoff 1982) (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006) (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). Despite these criticisms, a cognitive approach is more appropriate in the examination of ethical purchasing behaviour. Firstly, the complexity of such actions cannot be accommodated through behavioural models and secondly, the benefits of ethical consumption are largely vicarious in nature, requiring extensive intrapersonal evaluation. Key existing studies into ethical purchasing have all accepted the role of intrapersonal examination (Hines ANDAmes 2000, Nicholls ANDLee 2006, Ozcaglar-Toulouse,Shiu et al. 2006). 8 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 6. 1 Cognitive Models of Consumer Behaviour Two major types of Cognitive models can be discerned, as outlined in figure 1. 2 below. Firstly, analytical models which provide a framework of the key elements that are purported to explain the behaviour of consumers. These models identify a plethora of influencing factors, and intimate the broad relationships between factors in consumer decision making. Due to their wide ranging scope such models are often labelled the â€Å"grand models† (Kassarjian 1982). Typically they tend to follow the traditional five step classification outlining problem recognition, information search, alternative evaluation, choice and outcome evaluation as the key stages in consumer decision processes (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 001, Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). The Theory of Buyer Behaviour (Howard ANDSheth 1969) and the Consumer Decision Model (Blackwell,Miniard et al. 2001) are two of the most widely cited analytical models. Secondly, prescriptive models â€Å"provide guidelines or frameworks to organise how consumer behaviour is structured† (Moital 2007). These models include the order in which elements should appear and prescribe the effect that should be observed given certain causal factors. As such they promise to be useful to practitioners who can ‘measure’ what timuli should be modified or emphasised to attract a certain consumer response. The most widely referenced and used prescriptive models are the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein ANDAjzen 1975) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen 1985). 9 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 2: Cognitive Consumer Behaviour Models Cognitive Consumer Behaviour Models Analytic Prescriptive Consumer Decision Model Theory of Buyer Behaviour Theory of Reasoned Action Theory of Planned Behaviour (Source: Adapted from (Fawcett ANDDowns 1992, Moital 2007)) . 6. 1. 1 Analytic Cognitive Models The Theory of Buyer Behaviour Howard developed the first consumer decision-model in 1963 (Du Plessis,Rousseau et al. 1991). This model was developed further in 1969 by Howard and Sheth to become the ‘Theory of Buyer Behaviour’ (or Howard and Sheth Model) (Howard ANDSheth 1969). It provides â€Å"a sophisticated integration of the various social, psychological and marketing influences on consumer choice into a coherent sequence of information processing† (Foxall 1990 p. 10). The fundamental architecture of the model is outlined in Figure 1. below, with the exogenous variables not appearing in the first publication of the work (Howard ANDSheth 1969), but in subsequent publications (Howard ANDSheth 1973). The authors interest was in constructing a comprehensive model that could be used to analyse a wide range of purchasing scenarios, and as such the term ‘buyer’ was preferred over ‘consumer’ so as to not exclude commercial purchases (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). 10 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 3: Major components of the Theory of Buyer Behavior Exogenous Variables Inputs Hypothetical Constructs / Intervening Variables Outputs Source: Adapted from (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993) Input variables are the environmental stimuli that the consumer is subjected to, and is communicated from a variety of sources. Significative stimuli are actual elements of products and brands that the buyer confronts (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993), while symbolic stimuli refers to the representations of products and brands as constructed by marketers through advertising and act on the consumer indirectly (Foxall 1990) (Howard ANDSheth 1969). Social stimuli include the influence of family and other peer and reference groups. The influence of such stimuli is internalised by the consumer before they affect the decision process. As shown in Figure 1. 4 (below) the Hypothetical Constructs (or Intervening Variables) can be classified in two categories: those described as Perceptual constructs, and those described as Learning constructs. Perceptual constructs include: †¢ †¢ †¢ Sensitivity to information – the degree to which the buyer controls the flow of stimulus information. Perceptual bias – distortion or alteration of the information received due to the consumers fitting the new information into his or her existing mental set. Search for information – the active seeking of information on consumption choices. In combination these perceptual constructs serve to control, filter and process the stimuli that are received. 11 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 4: The Theory of Buyer Behavior Exogenous Variables Importance of Purchase Personality Variables Social Class Culture Organisation Time Pressure Financial Status Outputs Inputs Brands (A,B,C†¦) Significative 1 Quality 2 Price 3 Distinctive 4 Availability 5 Service Symbolic 1 Quality 2 Price 3 Distinctive 4 Availability 5 Service Social Environment Search for Information Inhibitors Purchase Behaviour Intention Predisposition Attitudes Comprehension Non-specific Motives Specific Motives Decision Mediators Evoked Set Attention Sensitivity to Information Perceptual Bias Satisfaction Perceptual Constructs Learning Constructs Input-output flow of information and affects Feedback effects Influence of exogenous variables Source: (Howard ANDSheth 1969, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993) The model draws heavily on learning theory concepts (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993), and as such six learning constructs are represented: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Motive – described as either general or specific goals impelling action. Evoked Set – the consumers’ assessment of the ability of the consumption choices that are under active consideration to satisfy his or her goals. Decision mediators – the buyer’s mental rules or heuristics for assessing purchase alternatives. Predispositions – a preference toward brands in the evoked set expressed as an attitude toward them. Inhibitors – environmental forces such as limited resources (e. g. time or financial) which restrain the consumption choice. 12 of 33 Jeff Bray †¢ Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Satisfaction – represents a feedback mechanism from post-purchase reflection used to inform subsequent decisions. This process of learning serves to influence the extent to which the consumer considers future purchases, and seeks new information. Howard and Sheth suggested that consumer decision making differs according to the strength of the attitude toward the available brands; this being largely governed by the consumer’s knowledge and familiarity with the product class. In situations where the consumer does not have strong attitudes they are said to engage in Extended Problem Solving (EPS), and actively seek information in order to reduce brand ambiguity. In such situations the consumer will also undertake prolonged deliberation before deciding which product to purchase or indeed, whether to make any purchase. As the product group becomes more familiar, the processes will be undertaken less conscientiously as the consumer undertakes Limited Problem Solving (LPS) and eventually Routine Problem Solving (RPS) (Foxall 1990). Exogenous variables (as depicted at the top of the model; figure 1. 4) outlines a number of external variables that can significantly influence decisions. As these factors are likely to depend, to some degree, on the individual buyer they are not as well defined by Howard and Sheth (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Howard and Sheth (1969) noted that these exogenous variables contained the history of the buyer up to the beginning of the period of observation. The five output variables on the right of the model represent the buyers’ response, and follow the progressive steps to purchase: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Attention – the magnitude of the buyer’s information intake. Comprehension – the processed and understood information that is used. Attitudes – the buyer’s evaluation of a particular brand’s potential to satisfy the purchase motives. Intention – the buyer’s forecast of which product they will buy. Purchase Behaviour – the actual purchase behaviour, which reflects the buyer’s predisposition to buy as modified by any inhibitors (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). 13 of 33 Jeff Bray Critique of model: Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Hunt and Pappas (1972) comment that the unique contribution of the Theory of Buyer Behaviour at the time of publication was the way in which the variables are combined by means of specific developmental linkages; â€Å"[f]or example Howard and Sheth propose that attitude influences purchase only through intention† (p. 346). Loudon et al. (1993) concur by stating that the coverage of how the variables interact within the model is a key strength. Beyond this the model is further commented for its coherent integration of social, psychological and marketing influences on consumers, and the fact that in discussion of the model, Howard and Sheth acknowledge and cater for different types of decision making (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Neman (1972) is less complimentary of the work however, suggesting that the model is simply the result of a Baconian induction 1 of the influences on the consumer (p. 88). This critique appears to ignore, however, the complex linkages that Howard and Sheth have proposed between the discrete variables. There is, however, widespread questioning of the model’s validity due to the lack of empirical work, employing ‘scientific’ methods, examining the organisation of the model and the inclusion of individual constructs (Haines 1970, Hunt ANDPappas 1972, Neman 1972) . Further, due to the unobservable nature of many of the intervening variables explicit measurement is difficult (Foxall 1990, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Studies that have attempted to empirically test the theory have not explicitly examined the developmental linkages that have been identified to be so important (Farley ANDRing 1970, Hunt ANDPappas 1972). Neman in his evaluation of the model questions the notion of all such linear models of consumer behaviour, suggesting that non-linear relationships may prove more valid in exploring behavioural actions (1972). Non-linear models of consumer behaviour have been proposed, most notably Baconian method Bacon suggests that you draw up a list of all things in which the phenomenon you are trying to explain occurs, as well as a list of things in which it does not occur. Then you rank your lists according to the degree in which the phenomenon occurs in each one. Then you should be able to deduce what factors match the occurrence of the phenomenon in one list and dont occur in the other list, and also what factors change in accordance with the way the data had been ranked. From this Bacon concludes you should be able to deduce by elimination and inductive reasoning what is the cause underlying the phenomenon. 14 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models by Peter and Olson (2008) and Jacoby (2002), however these present only a conceptual approach and have little explanatory use. While Howard and Sheth have attempted to create a generalisable theory, Loudon et al. (1993) have commented on its unsuitability in explaining joint decision making. This limitation has probably grown in significance since the initial publication of the model in 1969 due to changes in consumer practices, and highlights the possibility of further issues arising from the dated nature of the work. Within the model, Howard and Sheth have identified specific influences of the exogenous variables (identified by the dotted line in figure 1. 4 above) upon various hypothetical constructs. While it is commendable that an effort has been made to understand the specific influence of these exogenous factors, this has led to some curious suggestions. For example the personality of the buyer is said to influence non-specific motives, but not specific motives or perceptual bias. It is suggested in the conceptual model adopted in this research that exogenous variables act holistically upon decision making and exert at least some influence on every part of this process. Consumer Decision Model The Consumer Decision Model (also known as the Engel-Blackwell-Miniard Model) was originally developed in 1968 by Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell and has gone through numerous revisions; the latest publication of the model is depicted in Figure 1. below. It can be seen that many of the elements of the model are similar to those presented in the Theory of Buyer Behaviour (Howard ANDSheth 1969), however the structure of presentation and relationship between the variables differs somewhat. The model is structured around a seven point decision process: need recognition followed by a search of information both internally and externally, the evaluation of alternatives, purchase, post purchase reflection and finally, divestment. These decisions are influenced by two main factors. Firstly stimuli is received and processed by the consumer in conjunction with memories of previous experiences, and secondly, external variables in the form of either environmental influences or individual 15 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models differences. The environmental influences identified include: Culture; social class; personal influence; family and situation. While the individual influences include: Consumer resource; motivation and involvement; knowledge; attitudes; personality; values and lifestyle (Blackwell,Miniard t al. 2001). Figure 1. 5: Consumer Decision Model Input Information Process Decision Process Variables influencing decision process Need recognition Environmental Influences Culture Social Class Personal influence Family Situation Exposure Internal Search Search Stimuli Marketer dominated Other Attention M e Comprehension m o Purchase r Acceptance y Consumption Pre-Purchase Evaluation of Alternatives Individual Differences Consume r resources Motivation and involvement Knowledge Attitudes Personality, values and lifestyle Retention Post-Consumption Evaluation External Search Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Divestment Source: (Blackwell,Miniard et al. 2001) Entry to the model is through need recognition when the consumer acknowledges a discrepancy between their current state and some desirable alternative. This process is driven by an interaction between processed stimuli inputs and environmental and individual variables. After a need has been acknowledged the consumer embarks on a search for information, both internally through the consumers’ memory bank of previous experiences, and externally. The authors argue that the model is suitable for 6 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models use in explaining situations involving both extended problem solving and limited problem solving by modifying the degree to which various stages of the model are engaged in by the consumer (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). The depth of information search will be highly dependant on the nature of problem solving, with new or complex co nsumption problems being subjected to extensive external information searches, while simpler problems may rely wholly on a simplified internal search of previous behaviour. Information is said to pass through five stages of processing before storage and use, namely: exposure, attention, comprehension, acceptance and retention (Blackwell,Miniard et al. 2001). The alternative consumer choices are evaluated by the establishment of beliefs, attitudes and purchase intentions. This process of evaluation is influenced by both the environmental variables and the individual variables. Intention is depicted as the direct antecedent to purchase which is the only outcome tolerated by the model. Inhibitors are not explicitly depicted as mediating between intentions and purchase, however the environmental and individual influences are again said to act on purchase. Situation is listed as an environmental influence, and while this factor is not clearly defined, it could include such factors as time pressure or financial limitations which could serve to inhibit the consumer from realising their purchase intentions (VanTonder 2003). Consumption is followed by post-consumption evaluation which serves a feedback function into future external searches and belief formation. Divestment is depicted as the final stage in the consumption process acknowledging that the product purchased is likely to be disposed of at some point post consumption. Critique of the Consumer Decision Model One of the key strengths of the Consumer Decision Model is that it has continued to evolve since original publication in 1968 (J. F. Engel,Kollat et al. 1968), evolutions that should have improved the explanatory power of the model in light of advances in consumer behaviour theory and knowledge. One such evolution is the inclusion of such factors as consumption and divestment, embracing contemporary definitions of 17 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models consumer behaviour which include such stages of consumption in their scope (Peter ANDOlson 2008, Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007, Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). The model provides a clear depiction of the process of consumption making it easy to comprehend and intuitively pleasing (Foxall 1990). The mechanistic approach is, however, criticised to be too restrictive to adequately accommodate the variety of consumer decision situations (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 001, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). In parallel with the Theory of Buyer Behaviour, the influence of environmental and individual factors is purportedly specific to certain process within the model. This is counter intuitive, and ignores other impacts that such variables may have on the wider processes, for example, individual differences may exert significant influence on the marketing stimuli a consumer is firstly exposed to and secondly, how these stimuli are received and processe d. The environmental and individual variables have drawn criticism due to the vagueness of their definition and role within the decision process (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993); for example the influence of environmental variables is identified, but their role in affecting behaviour is not well developed. Further, the role of individual motives for purchase is only alluded to within need recognition, appearing to somewhat neglect a rich theoretical and important area of consideration (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 002, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Critique of ‘grand models’ In discussion of their contribution of a ‘grand model’ Engel et al. (1995) state that â€Å"a model is nothing more than a replica of the phenomena it is designed to present. It specifies the building blocks (variables) and the ways in which they are interrelated† (p. 143). While such models do, on the surface, appear to serve this function, providing the possibility to visually comprehend what happens as variables and circumstances change (Du Plessis,Rousseau et al. 991), a number of concerns and limitations of this approach have been cited over the last two decades (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001, VanTonder 2003). 18 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models The main criticisms of such ‘analytic’ consumer behaviour models are summarised below: †¢ Most models, being first proposed in 1960’s and 1970’s, have been developed with limited theoretical background due to the embryonic nature of the discipline in this time (Du Plessis,Rousseau et al. 1991). This concern may be alleviated, at least in part, by the contemporary revision of some models, for example the Consumer Decision Model introduced above. †¢ The assumed rationality of consumer decision making, upon which the models largely rely, has been brought into question. In the 1980’s researchers began to question the rationality of many consumer actions (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001). It was found that consumers frequently engaged in non-conscious behaviours that might not be well modelled through a rational information processing approach (Bozinoff 1982, Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 001). Other writers have found consumer behaviour in certain circumstances that appears haphazard, disorderly or opportunistic (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001), and while such observations may belie some rationality that may be hidden even to the actor, they certainly do not comply with the well structured and rigid traditional model proposed. Similarly emotional considerations and the role of he uristics are not well catered for through the rational approach. Almost by definition any ‘grand model’ of consumer behaviour requires a generalisation of the decision process. This fails to embrace the wide diversity of decision making situations, product categories and outcomes and could bias research in certain areas (Burns ANDGentry 1990, 1985). †¢ A common concern of the ‘analytic’ models regards the unobservable nature of many of the variables (Foxall 1990, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). As such it is still difficult to ascertain whether such models do provide an accurate representation of behaviour, and whether they have predictive value (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001). 19 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 6. 1. 2. Prescriptive Cognitive Models Theories of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Planned Behaviour (TPB) Prescriptive Cognitive Models were first developed in the 1960’s when marketing researchers increasingly focused on beliefs and attitudes as determinants of consumer buying behaviour (Ahtola 1975). The most influential work in this area was forwarded by Martin Fishbein who proposed a model of attitude formation that became known as the ‘Fishbein model’; the first of a breed of ‘expectancy value’ models (Fishbein 1963, Fishbein 1965, Fishbein 1967, Fishbein ANDBertram 1962). The Fishbein model proposed that a person’s overall attitude toward an object is derived from his beliefs and feelings about various attributes of the object (Ahtola 1975, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). The model is expressed algebraically in Figure 1. 6 below. Figure 1. 6: Fishbein Model expressed algebraically. N Ao=? Biai I=1 Where: Ao= the person’s overall attitude towards object o Bi = the strength of belief that the product possesses attribute i Ai = the evaluation or intensity of feeling (liking or disliking) toward attribute i N = the number of relevant beliefs considered by that person Source: (Ahtola 1975, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993, Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006) While this model provided a significant contribution in the area, it was developed further, and significantly extended, to not only assess attitudes, but behaviour (Ajzen ANDFishbein 1980, Fishbein ANDAjzen 1975). This revised model became known as the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and is depicted in Figure 1. 7 below. 20 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 7: Theory of Reasoned Action Beliefs about consequences of behaviour Attitude towards the behaviour Evaluations of consequences Behavioural Intention Beliefs about perceptions of others Subjective Norms about the behaviour Motivation to Comply Other intervening factors Behaviour Source: (Fishbein ANDAjzen 1975, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993) Behaviour is said to be approximately equal to behavioural intention, which can be derived from a combination of the consumer’s attitude toward purchasing the product and the subjective norms about the behaviour. Through the concept of ‘subjective norm’ the theory acknowledges the power of other people in influencing behaviour (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006); explicitly, it accounts for the thoughts of others toward the certain behaviour, and is moderated by the extent to which the consumer is motivated to comply to these views. The relative contributions of attitudes and subjective norms will not necessarily be equal in predicting behaviour (Miller 2005), depending on the individual consumer’s propensity to care about other’s views, the consumption situation, or the product type under consideration, with conspicuously consumed products tending to be influenced to a greater degree by the subjective norm variable than less conspicuous products would be (Schultz 2006). Another notable change in approach seen in TRA is that attitude toward the behaviour (the act of buying) is measured rather than simply the attitude toward the object. This was a necessary amendment once behaviour was being measured, as a consumer may have a very favourable attitude toward a product, but not toward the act of purchasing it (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). 21 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models In empirical tests and applications of the TRA, a high correlation of attitude toward behaviour and subjective norms to behavioural intentions have been found, however, some studies have proposed that the stated high relationship between behavioural intention and actual behaviour is simplistic because of circumstantial limitations (Oliver ANDBerger 1979, Sheppard,Hartwick et al. 1988). For a variety of reasons it is purported that behaviour is not always within the complete control of the actor, and as such an additional variable mediating between intentions and behaviour is necessary (Warshaw 1980). Ajzen provided this additional variable in 1985 when he published the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)(Ajzen 1985). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (depicted in its simplified form in Figure 1. 8 below) is simply an extension of the TRA which seeks to address the seeming over reliance on intentions to predict behaviours. Figure 1. 8: Theory of Planned Behaviour Behavioural Beliefs Attitude Normative Beliefs Subjective Norm Intention Behaviour Control Beliefs Perceived Behavioural Control Actual Behavioural Control Source: (Ajzen 2006) The construct ‘perceived behavioural control’ is formed by combining the perceived presence of factors that may facilitate or impede the performance of a behaviour and the perceived power of each of these factors. Actual behavioural control refers to the extent to which a person has the skills, resources, and other prerequisites needed to perform a given behaviour. Actual behavioural control is difficult to accurately assess and so perceived behavioural control is measured through specially designed questionnaires and serves as a proxy measure of the influence. In the TPB, behavioural intention is controlled by a dynamic mix of the attitude, subjective norm 22 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models and perceived behavioural control variables. Actual behaviour is again derived largely from behavioural intention, but is mediated to some degree by perceived behavioural control (Ajzen 2006). Since its publication the TPB has become the dominant expectancy-value theory, and has been applied in a wide variety of behavioural domains (Shaw,Shiu et al. 000). Empirical tests have often found that the TPB has significantly improved predictive ability over the earlier TRA (Beck ANDAjzen 1991, Giles ANDCairns 1995). In the past 20 years a number of studies have proposed modification to the TRA and TPB. In most cases these modifications do not alter the fundamental architecture of the theory, but do change or add variables in an attempt to improve the predictive ability in specific contexts. Ajzen is supportive of such modifications or additions, stating in 1991 that: â€Å"The theory of planned behaviour is, in principle, open to the inclusion of additional predictors if it can be shown that they capture a significant proportion of the variance in intention or behaviour after the theory’s current variables have been taken into account† Ajzen (1991, p. 199) One of the most notable adaptations is the Technology Acceptance Model proposed by Davis in 1989 in an attempt to explain the determinants of computer acceptance (F. Davis 1989, F. Davis,Bagozzi et al. 1989). Of greater relevance to this study is work that has proposed the addition of ethical obligation as a determining variable (Kurland 1995, Raats,Shepherd et al. 1995, Shaw,Shiu et al. 2000, Sparks,Shepherd et al. 1995), self identity (Shaw,Shiu et al. 2000, Sparks ANDGuthrie 1998, Sparks ANDShepherd 1992, Terry,Hogg et al. 1999) and environmental behaviours (Harland,Staats et al. 1999). Critique of the models Meta-analytic reviews of the TPB provide strong support for the predictive validity of the theory (Conner ANDArmitage 1998). The theory provides a ‘parsimonious explanation of the informational and motivational influences on behaviour’ (Conner ANDArmitage 1998 p. 1430); it is easy to comprehend, and can be applied to a wide 23 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models range of research scenarios. There are, however, a number of limitations which limit the scope of use and the extent to which it can be deemed to be a complete model of consumer purchase decisions. The predictive ability of the TRA and TPB relies on the researcher’s ability to accurately identify and measure all salient attributes that are considered by the consumer if forming their attitude (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). Clearly many consumption situations are highly complex, and influenced by a plethora of both conscious and sub-conscious factors rendering this premise optimistic. The models rely upon the assumption that the consumer undertakes comprehensive cognitive processing prior to purchase behaviour, an assumption that is challenged by other philosophical approaches (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 002). The reliance on cognition appears to neglect any influence that could result from emotion, spontaneity, habit or as a result of cravings (Hale,Householder et al. 2002). Solomon et al. comment (2006) that behaviour in certain circumstances may result not from attitude evaluation, but overall affective response in a process called ‘affect-referral’. These are thought to be important limitations in the context of clothing shopping where overall affective evaluation and hedonistic impulses are thought to influence some purchases. The TRA and TPB have been widely applied in Western cultures, however it is not clear that the assumptions underpinning it are well suited to other cultures (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). Very few cross-cultural studies have been undertaken; however the limited findings suggest that the theories are not equally effective in different cultures (Bagozzi,Wong et al. 2000). Finally, it is thought that intention is likely to be a dynamic concept, constantly under re-evaluation by the consumer as situations change, or as more information becomes available. This will make it difficult for the model to accurately predict behaviour prior to the purchase event as intentions are only likely to be provisional (Sutton 1998). Similarly the model does not well cater for any inhibiting factors to purchase, for example the retail store being out of stock of the intended item. 24 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 7 Humanistic Approach The cognitive models appear well covered in generic Consumer Behaviour texts, and are often portrayed as providing the best available explanation of consumer decision making. Despite this, however, there are a growing number of academic writers highlighting limitations of the Cognitive approach and publishing new research attempting to further understanding of specific aspects of behaviour. These new approaches can be described as humanistic as they seek to explore concepts introspective to the individual consumer rather than describe generic processes (Stewart 1994). The three most pressing areas for research were identified by Nataraajan Bagozzi in 1999. Firstly Cognitive approaches rely upon the assumption of the consumer being a rational decision maker, this appears to neglect the role of emotion in decision making. Nataraajan Bagozzi (1999) comment: ‘There is a pressing need in the field to balance the rational, cognitive side of marketing thought and practice with new ideas and research on the emotional facets of marketing behavior’ (Nataraajan ANDBagozzi 1999 p. 637) Secondly, emerging work has started to examine concept of volition. This new work is seeking to understand and address the gap between consumer’s stated purchase intentions and their actual final purchase behaviour by understanding the volitional stages to decision making. Thirdly,; the almost universal acceptance of egoism in marketing theory at the expense of altruism; there is a lack of research that has examined the influence of altruistic motives on any consumer behaviours. 1. 7. 1 Humanistic Models of Consumer Behaviour Of the three key areas that Nataraajan and Bagozzi identified (1999), it is the study of the volitional stages of decision making that has received the most productive theoretical effort. 25 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models The Theory of Trying The Theory of Trying (Bagozzi ANDWarshaw 1990) depicted in Figure 1. 9 (below) provides an interesting alternate approach to the models previously considered. Rather than examining explicit behaviour, the model assesses trying to act. Subjective norms, attitude toward the process or means of trying, attitudes and expectations of success and attitudes and expectations of failure are posed as the key antecedent variables to intention to try; itself the key precursor to trying. Past behaviour has been found to influence consumer choice in a number studies (Bagozzi ANDKimmel 1995, Leone,Perugini et al. 1999, Norman ANDConner 1996), and is thus integrated as a key influence within the theory. Bagozzi et al. 2002) suggest in discussion of this theory that rather than consumers having behavioural intentions, they rather have behavioural goals in many situations, and they must expend effort and make purposive endeavour to fulfil these goals. To date the theory of trying has mostly been applied to health related decisions, and only few studies have applied it to retail consumption decisions. Some parts of the theory have been supported empirically, but not all of the variables have been found to be significant in every tes t (Bay ANDDaniel 2003). In a fillip to the theory, Gould et al. 1997) published research into the reasons for consumers ‘failing to try to consume’. In this case consumers are said to either fail to see or be ignorant of their options, or make a conscious effort not to consume (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). The first of these two points may have relevance in the field of ethical clothing. 26 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 9: Theory of Trying Attitude toward success Frequency of past trying and/or past behaviour Recency of past trying and/or past behaviour Expectation of success Attitude toward failure Intention to try Expectation of failure Trying Attitude toward process or means Subjective Norm Source: (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 2002) The Model of Goal Directed Behaviour The Model of Goal Directed Behaviour draws heavily on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, with each of its constructs being represented. Where it differs, however, is firstly in the addition of the variables of past behaviour (both frequency and recency) and emotions (both positive and negative), and in the structure of behavioural causality passing through desire and onto intention which itself is now seen as only one of a possible four variables that are influencing behaviour (Perugini ANDBagozzi 2001). Due to the recency of publication, the model of goal directed behaviour is seen to provide a composite view of decision making that has benefited from the wealth of research that has been undertaken in the field. The previously unseen variable, desire, is argued to be a stronger predictor of intention than attitudes, subjective norms or perceived behavioural control (Sutton 1998), and appears to be consistent with recent research in developmental, animal and social psychology (Leone,Perugini et al. 2004). 27 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 0: Model of Goal-Directed Behaviour Attitude Frequency of past behaviour Positive anticipated emotions Desires Intentions Action Negative anticipated emotions Recency of past behaviour Subjective norms Perceived behavioural control Source: (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 2002) In comparison to the more well established TRA and TPB it has been found that the model of goal directed behaviour holds greater predi ctive ability. One shortcoming might, however, be that the model is more complex requiring more sophisticated data gathering techniques (Leone,Perugini et al. 2004). 1. 9 Summary As this discussion has shown, a number of different approaches to modelling consumer decision making can be adopted. The area is subject to ongoing dynamic research and it is expected that new insights and approaches still lie unexplored providing a potentially rich area for study. With a few notable exceptions, the role of ethics, social responsibility and altruism have been largely ignored by the models and theories reviewed here; which, given the dramatic rise in such concerns identified in Chapter 1, suggests that research attempting to integrate such considerations would make a valuable contribution. The review of the decision making models undertaken here highlights the complexity of consumer choices and identifies the key processes that lead to behaviour. 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Introduction Instrumental conditioning is learning through consequences. Those behaviors that produce positive results are reinforced, while those behaviors that produce negative results are weakened (Gonzalez Sawicka, 2003). An analysis of bicycle riding reveals that the learning process is psychologically affected by both reward and punishment.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Instrumental Conditioning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Learning and Teaching how to ride a Bicycle Learning to ride a bicycle can start when a child or an adult develops a desire to ride a bicycle. It may be related with what the age mates are doing. A feeling of freedom and fun is a motivation in a learning process. One should start learning from the simplest way and advance to the complicated levels. The learning process involves five major steps (Mozer, 2011). Firstly, one should learn on how to balance a bicycle on a flat field. P rotective clothing such as helmet, long pants and gloves are important in this exercise. The learner should then go to up on a sloppy place and lift up his feet off the ground as he goes down the hill on the bicycle. This helps to exercise on balancing the bicycle (Mozer, 2011). The second step should be pedaling. The learner should put his feet on the pedals and try to pedal. It is recommended to start with one pedal and then proceed on to both pedals. The learner should repeat this action until he feels comfortable. The learner then can pedal up the hill after being able to pedal down the hill. During this process, one can increase the number of pedaling runs (Mozer, 2011). Riding a bicycle in a straight line should be the initial way of learning to ride a bicycle. It has been recommended that a learner should start by pedaling with one foot and later on the other foot can catch up. Developing good habits from the beginning gives the learner a smooth start (Mozer, 2011). Looking s traight ahead helps in riding a bicycle in a straight line. Flexibility and staying relaxed is a key to learning how to ride a bicycle. Turning one’s head may cause the bicycle to swerve. Care should be taken when stopping a bicycle by applying both the rear and front brakes simultaneously (Mozer, 2011). At this point, the learner can start making turns. It is recommended that there should be some slowing down before negotiating a corner. Learning how to make a turn involves the combination of steering abilities as well as putting into use what one has already learnt. In the whole of this process, crashes are expected. The instructor should be keen to comfort, coerce, cheerlead and bandage and also be patient with the person he/she is training (Mozer, 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Positive and Negative Reinforcement in Riding a Bicycle Learning and behavior are linked together and thus behavior is susceptible to be changed by a learning process (Psychology, 2011). When one is learning to keep the balance, pedaling and steering, he/she may fall several times. The learner should understand that all the learning stages may not be accomplished successfully as some stages may have to be repeated once or twice. From the consequence of what the learner gets, he responds accordingly. The behaviors that cause a fall will not be repeated e.g. if turning the head was the cause of falling, the likelihood of not repeating turning the head will be quite high consequently the behavior of turning the head will be weakened. If one succeeds in riding the bicycle and gets a smooth start, the learner easily gets to the next step. One’s history in riding a bicycle can function as either a positive or negative reinforcement. Reinforcement is caused by both emotional and physical states of the learner (Sidman, 2006). Encouragement is very crucial in a learning process. When the rider improves and is encouraged, the behavior will be reinforced. If the learner feels challenged and on repeated trials fails, he will possibly feel discouraged and the learning process may be slowed down. If the learner for example falls, this would be a negative result (Mozer, 2011). The process of trial and error is repeated until one gets used to balancing the bicycle. After knowing how to pedal one may get so exited and feel that he/she can speed up down the streets. Another problem comes in if he/she is not able to stop and brake effectively. This may bring falls, hurts or wounds. After many trials the person learns to stop the bicycle without inflicting personal injuries (Psychology, 2011). Role of Reward and Punishment in Cycling Skinner developed a theory in learning and noticed that he could train pigeons and other animals (Psychology, 2011). Their response was modified because of the use of a reward which was food. The pigeon realized that upon pecking some identified spot it some food dropped from somewhere. This tempted the pigeon to repeat the process continuously as it led to more availability of food. The pairing of behavior and reward is also significant while learning to ride a bicycle. The behavior in this condition is voluntary. This is known as operant conditioning.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Instrumental Conditioning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It has been noted that â€Å"operant conditioning includes pairing through reinforcement and punishment† (Psychology, 2011, p. 1). Being rewarded enhances one to learn the process being rewarded faster (Psychology, 2011). Social learning is also an important aspect while learning how to ride a bicycle. When a learner sees other people taking pleasure in riding a bicycle he/she is likely to be encouraged into acquiring the skill (Psychology, 2011). Knowing how to balance and pedal will cause the learner to cycle more skillfully. He will progress to turning, steering and braking without making many mistakes. Confidence in riding a bicycle can be viewed as a positive reinforcement. Positive punishment enhances learning the correct behavior. This means if the learner knows where he/she makes mistakes and falls e.g. at corners, he/she will be more careful when he/she reaches the corners and will not probably be speeding up at such points (Psychology, 2011). Negative punishment is eliminating a factor or variable that results to diminishing a given behavior (Psychology, 2011). Reinforcement can be of fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval or variable interval. In learning to ride a bicycle the reinforcement is of variable ratio. The number of times that one must ride the bicycle in order to become an expert is unknown (Psychology, 2011). Conclusion Learning how to ride a bicycle is a process. What one experiences in the first step determines how he/she will proceed to t he next stage. Behaviors that contribute to good riding are enhanced while those that bring punishment such as falls are weakened. This reveals that the learning process is psychologically affected by both reward and punishment. References Gonzalez, J. G., Sawicka, A. (2003, January 6-9). Modelling Instrumental Conditioning. Web. Mozer, D. (2011). Learning to Bicycle Without Pain, Teaching Bicycling Without Strain. Web.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Psychology. (2011). Learning and Behavior. Web. Sidman, M. (2006). The distinction between positive and negative Reinforcement. Web. This essay on Instrumental Conditioning was written and submitted by user Isabel Flowers to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Victorian Age essays

The Victorian Age essays The Victorian Age is remembered for a lot of things. There was an extreme growth in many of the arts but the one that is the most memorable is its literature. The authors of that time questioned many of the issues going on and influenced our society, as we know it today. The authors such as Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy spoke out against certain issues during that age and are very memorable for that. There were also many philosophers that changed the way we look at the world today. Philosophers such as Charles Darwin and Thomas Malthus brought up many issues that were very controversial. Dickens and Hardy were very different in there writing styles but wrote about common Victorian themes such as; the subjection of women, Darwins theory of evolution and survival of the fittest, ant the oppression of the poor. These people put themselves in the public eye and boldly spoke out on many controversial issues that had not been questioned for thousands of years. Womens rights are sometimes taken for granted today. Many people, men especially, forget that women just recently gained the right to vote and are still slightly discriminated against because of their gender. In the 1700s womens right was unheard of. The authors during this time addressed this issue a lot. An excellent example of this is in Hardys novel Tess of the dUbervilles. The main character is a young woman named Tess. Tess has many first hand experiences with the unjust treatment and discrimination of women during this time. Tess rebels against the discrimination and thereby stands up for womens rights. The main theme of this book is that women were commonly abused and treated as inferior beings. Hardy used Tess to show how bad it was. For example, Hardy states, I was a child when I left this house for months ago. Why didnt you tell me there was danger in men-folk?(Pg.80). Hardy is illustrating how women are t...

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Human Trafficking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Trafficking - Essay Example Human trafficking continues to be a major problem all over the world, and bringing about awareness will enable it to be better addressed. First things first, we will bring awareness to the fact that human trafficking does not only effect those who are poor. The rich are affected, too. For instance, there may be people who are rich and living in another country. They have a surplus of money and would like to use it to get to the United States because they believe that coming to this country will afford them better opportunities, such as financial gain and a chance to have greater success. These individuals contact smugglers to help them come here, and they pay these smugglers large sums of money. But one of two things happens that can land the rich into being victims of human trafficking. One scenario can be that the one smuggling them may be a part of the human trade, and rather than helping these individuals to just come over to the United States to lead a better life, they can turn on them and make them part of the human cargo they wish to trade and sell. The other scenario can be that once they do get to the United States, they can fall victims of human trafficking in that they are normally left to their own devices after being smuggled and will more than likely not understand how everything works in this country. They will not know where to obtain resources, and they will more than likely not be completely familiarize with the laws here (U.S. Department of State, 2005). Their lack of knowledge coupled with being in an unfamiliar place is a perfect recipe for a human trafficking victim. A second issue in regards to human trafficking that needs awareness is that men are also victims of human trafficking. A number of people may not think that to be possible; however, it does happen, whether people want to believe it or not. One way that men can become victims is because the one trafficking them will use tactics, such as violence, coercion, and force. Even manipulation can be a factor. Men, like women, can be forced into prostitution, and they are subject to brutal treatment, such as rape and violence, in the same way that women are. And because human trafficking is not only restricted to sex work, both men and women are kidnapped to work in factories or doing other illegal migrant work, such as working with agriculture. Both factory and illegal migrant work have a sour history of workers being paid cheaply or not at all (U.S. Department of State, 2005). Then there is the assumption that human trafficking does not occur in the United States and that it is a problem far from us. However, this is far from the truth. Human trafficking occurs right here on our home soil, as

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Rice and Beans Essay Rice-and-beans, the staple of Belize Cuisine. Although originally considered primarily a Creole dish, today it’s eaten daily by all and is simply called Belizean rice and beans. Ingredients 1 cup red kidney beans 1 cup thick coconut milk 1 garlic clove (optional) salt pepper 2 cups rice 1 onion, sliced 1 piece of salt meat (cut into small pieces) Preparations 1. Soften beans (soak first) with garlic. 2. Boil until tender and whole, adding salt meat (previously boiled to soften) when almost tender. 3. Add the milk, onion and seasonings. 4. Wash rice, then add to the beans. 5. Cook over gentle heat until liquid is absorbed. 7. Stir gently with a fork, and add a little water from time to time until rice is cooked. Serve hot with a meat dish. (Some favorite meat dishes with rice and beans are: stuffed baked chicken, stew chicken, stew fish, fried fish or meat balls). Yoana Alvarez Period 2.

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay We argue that it is possible to empirically test some of the postulates of the classical distinction between an intrinsic and an extrinsic religious orientation: we investigated how people perceive the difference between an individual and a social religious identity, between a central versus a peripheral religiosity, and which are the different motives effectively underlying these different forms of religious identity. Using an ecological measure based on four types of participants self-categorization, results from a longitudinal study across six countries provided a new framework for interpreting religious identity. In particular, religious identity was mainly categorized at a social level by European respondents, whereas nonwestern respondents mostly rated it at an individual level; religious identity was perceived as equally central at the individual and social levels of categorization. Last, we compared the strength of different identity motives underlying these different forms o f religious identity. In the conclusions, we discuss the importance of investigating the different ways of being religious, and how they differ according to the specific experience of religiosity in a particular national context. Keywords: religious identity; identity motives; religious orientation; cross-cultural. The Categorization of Religious Identity in Different Cultures Is there a single form of the religious sentiment? This question was the first interrogation of Allports seminal book The individual and his Religion (1950, p.3): it is clear even in everyday life experience that individuals differ radically from one another in their ways of being religious and that each person endorses the religious identity with a different accent. Some years later, Allport and Ross (1967) developed the well-known distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. In this framework, the intrinsic orientation is typical of an individual who lives religiosity as something personal, mainly consisting of private expression, central in life and satisfying the individual need for meaning; on the other hand, the extrinsic oriented individual mainly lives the social aspect of religiosity, considering religion as something peripheral in his/her existence and that responds to social needs, such as the need for belonging or for high social status. Even if it has been widely used, many scholars pointed out the weakness if this definition and the debate on how to define religious identity is still open. Here, we focus on two parts, which we investigated in a cross-cultural study of late adolescents. The first aspect concerns the level of categorization of religious identity: in the intrinsic orientation, religiosity is personal and endorsed at an individual level, whereas the extrinsic type is mainly associated with a social level and thus with group belonging. Does this distinction correspond to real life experience of religious identity? Is it possible to distinguish between an individual (or personal) versus a social (group belonging) religious identity? The second aspect deals with the structure of identity: for an intrinsic orientated individual, religious identity is central and of primary importance, while it is peripheral and superficially endorsed in the extrinsic one. Does the distinction between individual and social religious identity entail a difference between a central versus a peripheral religious identity? In sum, this empirical study investigated in an ecologic framework if some people perceive their own religious identity as an individual characteristic, whereas others as a group belonging, and the implications of this difference for the understanding of religious identity. The Level of Categorization of Religious Identity: Individual and Social Religious Self According to the delineation of the religious orientations provided by Allport and Ross (1967), some people live religiosity as something personally chosen and individually endorsed, whereas other people live religiosity mainly as a belonging to a social group. In the literature, research into religiosity sometimes consider the individual aspect of religion, for example solitary personal prayer (e.g. Fincham, Lambert, Beach, 2010), while at other times consider the social side of religiosity, for example the feeling of belonging to a group and the commitment toward this group (e.g. Vekuyten Yildiz, 2010). Cohen, Hall, Koenig, and Meador (2005) argued that the importance of social aspects in religion can be viewed as a cultural characterization of certain religious denominations (see also Cohen, Siegel, Rozin, 2003; Hall, Meador, Koenig, 2008); for example, the emphasis on communitarian aspects (praying together, feeling a sense of belonging) is stronger in certain denominations, whereas in other denominations the emphasis is more on individual religiosity (e.g. beliefs, conversion, personal prayer). Another possible explanation for the different emphasis put on the individual versus social side of religiosity can be found in general culture: the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures might also affect differences in religious identity (Triandis, 1995). The six countries included in the present study all have a Christian historical background (paired with Islam in Lebanon), but they differ in levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995). Thus, we explored the question about the individual or social characterization of religious identity in a large sample of different cultures, allowing to compare between individualistic and collectivistic countries. To our knowledge, no study to date has investigated with an ecologic approach what people actually feel about their religious identity. A first purpose in the present study is to look at what people say when they think about their religious identity. In particular, we proposed to look at four possible levels of categorization, drawing on self- categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, Wetherell, 1987): an individual level, a relational level, a small group level and a large group level. We expected that some people perceive their own religious identity mainly as a personal characteristic, whereas others perceive it as a group belonging, etc. Therefore, we examined which level of categorization people associate their religious identity with if directly asked, without any sort of priming (e.g. without influence by instructions or by item formulation). The Structure of Identity: Central and Peripheral Religious Self The question about the centrality of religiosity in the individual self is assuming growing importance in the literature. In fact, it is argued that the individual differences in centrality of the religious self may also result in different degrees of integration of religion in life, and thus to different outcomes (Pargament, 2002). According to Allport and Ross (1967) theorization, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity imply a different degree of centrality of religion in the individuals life: the intrinsic orientation entails centrality in life, i.e. subjective importance of religion, and it is seen as a more mature form of religiosity, whereas in the extrinsic form religiosity is a more peripheral part of life. Given that the authors consider intrinsic form of religiosity mainly as individual religiosity, they also assume that the individual religious self is more central than the social (extrinsic) religious self, which is seen as more peripheral. Nevertheless, this clear-cut opposition is questioned from many parts (e.g. Pargament, 1992; Burris, 1994). Flere and Lavric (2007) argued that intrinsic religious orientation is a culturally specific American Protestant concept and concluded that it is time for scholars to approach the question of the authenticity [italics added] of non-intrinsic religious orientation, including social extrinsic orientation not just as sociability, but as a legitimate path for achieving grace and salvation (p. 529). Therefore, we argue that research into the perceived centrality of different types of religious selves would gain clarity by being investigated cross-culturally, comparing across cultures the perceived importance of religiosity in the individual, relational or social self. In the present study, we investigated the centrality measured as perceived subjective importance of religious self in identity in a cross-cultural sample from six nations, including both western and nonwestern countries. We examined if people who define their religious identity more in terms of individual versus relational versus social self also show different degrees of centrality of that religious identity. According to the evidence provided by Cohen and colleagues (2005), and Flere and Lavric (2007), the social aspects of religiosity can be perceived equally important as the individual aspects by the person herself; thus, we expected to observe equivalent degrees of centrality at all levels of categorization. The Present Study This study is based on secondary analysis of a data set of a broader longitudinal study into culture and identity (Becker, Vignoles, Owe, Brown, Smith, Easterbrook, et al., 2012). For the purpose of the present research, we examined six different cultural contexts: three European countries from different parts of Europe (UK, Belgium, Italy) and three non European countries, specifically a Middle East country (Lebanon), one in East Asia (Philippines) and one in sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia). These countries represent six very different cultural contexts in which religious identity can develop, with varying levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995): the UK, Italy and Belgium have similar high rates for individualism, while Lebanon, Philippines and Ethiopia are all collectivistic countries (Hofstede, 2001). We hypothesized that in all these contexts people can perceive their religious identity at different levels of categorization, with implications for the centrality of religious identity and for the motives underlying each type of religious self. In the previous sections of this paper, we accounted for the distinction between individual and social religious self; then we exposed the centrality or non centrality of religious identity and the multiplicity of motives that can be at the basis of religious identity. The study reflects this pattern and provides answers to three research questions: (1) Are there individuals who categorize their religious identity as individual and others who categorize their identity as relational or social? Our hypothesis, following Cohen at al. (2005), was that participants define their religious identity both as individual and as social. (2) Is the individual religious self the most central religious identity? Our hypothesis, consistent with Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) findings that both individual and social motives can have the same importance in religious identity, was that, irrespective of culture, the perceived centrality of religious identity is equivalent at the individ ual, relational and group level of identity. Method Participants. Participants were a subsample of the broader research project, constituted by secondary school students in the UK, Belgium, Italy, Lebanon, Philippines, and Ethiopia. A total of 1,793 participants took part in the study. The mean age was 17.5 (SD 1.1); 257 were residents in the UK, 194 in Belgium, 187 in Italy, 300 in Lebanon, 250 in Ethiopia, and 300 in the Philippines. Demographic information regarding age, gender, general religiosity (mean rates for How important is religion to you?, from 1 not at all to 5 extremely) and religious belonging in each national sample are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Participants Characteristics and Religious Belonging by Sample. Sample Belgium Ethiopia Italy Lebanon Philippines UK Mean Age (sd) 17.7(1.1) 18.1(1.0) 18.1(0.8) 17.3(0.5) 17.9(1.3) 17.1(0.8) % Female 57 45 61 46 66 75 Religiosity (1-5) 2.14 4.77 2.69 3.73 4.03 1.92 % Christian 45.4 97.1 77.8 34 89.3 34.1 % Muslim 6.0 1.2 1.6 61.3 0.7 0.8 % Other 1.2 3.8 2.0 8.7 2.4 % no relig. belonging 46.6 1.6 16.8 2.7 1.3 61 Procedure. The research was introduced as a study about opinions, thoughts and feelings; participants were recruited through schools and were not compensated in any way. As the present study is based on secondary analysis, the research team members who supervised the completion of the questionnaire were unaware of the researchs aim, so participants were not influenced about religion/religiosity. A questionnaire was filled out at the beginning of the school year (time 1) and, after a period of approximately six months, another questionnaire was completed (time 2). In nations where this was an ethical requirement, parental consent was obtained in advance. Measures. Measures were included within a larger questionnaire concerning identity construction and cultural orientation (see Becker et al, 2012; Owe et. al, 2012). The questionnaires were administered in English in UK and Philippines, and they were translated from English into French (Belgium), Italian (Italy), Arabic (Lebanon) and Amharic (Ethiopia) in each country. Independent back-translations were made by bilinguals who were not familiar with the research topic and hypotheses. Ambiguities and inconsistencies were identified and resolved by discussion, adjusting the translations. Only the measures relevant to this article are described here. Generation of identity aspects. First, participants were asked to generate freely ten answers to the question Who are you? (hereafter, these answers will be referred to as identity aspects), using an adapted version of the Twenty Statements Test (TST, Kuhn McPartland, 1954, see Becker et al., 2012). This part of the questionnaire was located at the very beginning of the questionnaire, so that responses would be constrained as little as possible by theoretical expectations or demand characteristics. The ten aspects generated by respondents at time 1 were re-presented at time 2 and participants re-evaluated them after the time lag. Self-categorization of identity aspects. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to indicate for each identity aspect the category that best fitted their identity aspect, by circling a letter (possible choices: I, for individual characteristic, R, for relationship with someone, SM, for belonging to a small group, LG, for belonging to a large group). We adopted four categories in order to maximize the ecological approach and let respondents choose between more than a dichotomous alternative. Identity centrality. (Vignoles et al. 2006). A question measured the perceived centrality of each identity aspect within participants subjective identity structures (How important is each of these things in defining who you are?; scale anchors were 0 = not at all important, 10 = extremely important). The same item was answered both at time 1 and at time 2. Identity motives. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to rate each of their identity aspects on the six identity motives. The questions measured the association of each identity aspect with feelings of self-esteem (How much does each of these things make you see yourself positively?), distinctiveness (How much do you feel that each of these things distinguishes you-in any sense-from other people?), belonging (How much does each of these things make you feel you belong-that you are include among or accepted by people who matter for you?), efficacy (How much does each of these things make you feel competent and capable?), continuity (How much does each of these things give you a sense of continuity-between past, present and future-in your life?), meaning (How much does each of these things give you the sense that your life is meaningful?). Scale anchors were 0 = not at all, 10 = extremely. Results After collecting data, we read all the identity aspects and selected the identity aspects referring to religion, coding them as 1 and all other aspects as 0. All the aspects that mentioned God, Religion, belonging to religious organizations, etc. were coded as religious identity aspects. Examples are: Christian, Religious, God fearing, Member of the Church, etc. The percentage of people who mentioned at least one religious identity aspect in each country were: Ethiopia 47%, Philippines 33%, Italy 13%, Belgium 9%, Lebanon 7%, UK 6%. Most of the following analyses, except where indicated, were conducted selecting only participants religious identity aspects. Self-categorization of religious identity aspects. The questionnaire item, as described before, allowed to choose between individual characteristic, relationship with someone, belonging to a small group and belonging to a large group. The percentages of selected categories differed in each country sample. As we can see in Figure 1, European participants mainly categorized their religious identity aspects as group belonging, while non-European participants labeled their religious identity aspects as individual characteristic in the majority of cases; relationship with someone and small group were chosen by a minority of respondents. A Chi-square test indicated significant differences between countries, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 (15, 232) = 47.981, p We then checked if the differences in categorization were connected to general culture. We tested if it was a general tendency of western respondents to define all their identity aspects as group belongings, but we found that this categorization is specific to religious identity aspects: a Chi-square test conducted on all identity aspects of the European samples indicated a significant difference of categorization between religious and non religious identity aspects, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 (3, 1) = 33.645, p Figure1. Figure 1. Percentages of self-categorization of religious identity aspects in each sample. Centrality of religious identity in the different levels of categorization. We tested the hypothesis that religious identity aspects would be perceived as more central (i.e. rated as more important) in an individual religious self (aspects labeled as individual characteristic) than in a relational (aspects labeled as relation with someone) or social religious self (aspects labeled as small group belonging or large group belonging). However, the ANOVA comparing the means of the four groups revealed no significant differences in the centrality of the religious identity aspects (F (3,202) = 1.61, p = .189). Mean centrality for each level of categorization is reported in Figure 2. Thus, all levels of categorization of religious identity are associated to the same degree of importance for the person who endorses one of them. Figure 2. Mean identity centrality of the religious self by level of categorization. Numbers in parentheses report standard deviations. Centrality was significantly different between countries (F (5,202) = 6.40, p Discussion Our aim was to explore different forms of religious identity in different countries. The study measured the occurrence of religious identity with an ecological procedure, where participants freely generated aspects of their identities. In countries with a higher mean religiosity, a higher number of participants listed a religious identity aspect in their identity. We first investigated the level of self-categorization (Turner et al., 1987) that participants choose for the religious aspects of their identity. Interesting between-country differences were observed: most Western participants rated their religious identity as group belonging, whereas nonwestern participants rated it as individual characteristic. This pattern does not match the traditional individualist-collectivist distinction (Triandis, 1995), and it cannot be explained by general culture (as tested by the comparison with other, non-religious, identity aspects of the same participants), but probably reflects something mo re specifically connected with religious traditions and habits. These results are in line with Cohen et al. (2005) and add to the existing theory the specification that the importance of social versus individual aspects of religious identity varies not only by religious denomination but also by the specific experience of religiosity in a specific national context. It could be, for example, that in Western countries, where religion is not so widespread, people who experience religiosity necessarily have this experience by means of affiliation with a particular group. On the contrary, in countries in which religion is more widespread, individuals can live a religious experience individually and without entering a specific group. The second aim of our study was to compare religious identity centrality at different levels of categorization: literature about intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation suggests that a more personal level of categorization would coincide with a more central (i.e. perceived as important) religious identity (Allport Ross, 1967). However, we predicted, following Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) that the perceived importance of religious identity should be the same for individual, relational, and social religious identity. In support of this hypothesis, there were no significant differences in the mean rates of identity centrality at the four levels of self-categorization. Thus, this disconfirms the distinction between an extrinsic religiosity that is peripheral and based on group belonging, and an intrinsic religiosity that is central and pertains to an individual level. In fact, both individual level and group level religious identity have the characteristic of ce ntrality that was a prerogative of the sole intrinsic orientation. Conclusions and Implications A first implication of these findings is the irrelevance of a distinction between a first class (real, authentic, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) and a second class (peripheral, instrumental,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) religious identity reflecting the personal-social distinction. In fact, even if it is possible to differentiate between different levels of religious identity and to distinguish between a more personal religious identity associated with sense of meaning and a more social religious identity associated with need for belonging (as can be predicted by the traditional intrinsic-extrinsic distinction), each type of religious identity is central for the individual who lives it. Thus, we agree with Flere and Lavric (2007) that the authentic religious expression cannot be confined into the intrinsic-individual orientation but should also include the importance, for the individual, of social and relational aspects of religious identity. A limitation of this study lays in the theoretical opposition between individual and social self: even if it was a necessary option for a first disentanglement of the different ways of being religious, we think that the two selves are not alternative and that an individual could have both a salient individual religious self and a salient social religious self. Indeed, some recent studies combining the two levels measuring at the same time the individual and social side of religious identity show promising findings (see for example, Brambilla, Manzi, Regalia, 2011; Verkuyten Yildiz, 2010). What should also be further explored, is the impact of the minority or majority status of religious groups in a given country on the individual perception of religious identity. In fact, the unexpected observation, in our sample, of the prevalence of self-categorization of religious identity as a group level identity among the western participants, elicits new questions. The impact of different denominations has already been investigated (e.g. Toosi, Ambady, 2010), but less is known about the influence of religious history of each country: it could be the case that in more secularized countries the religious identity is connected to belonging to a specific group, whereas in more religious nations individuals can practice their religion as something ordinary, pertaining to the majority of people (see also Gebauer et al, 2012; Sedikides Gebauer, 2010). Another aspect of possible influence is the interconnection between peoples religious identity and the way in which they enter in con tact with a religious tradition, for example their religious group/community and its specific practices (attendance of services, solitary prayer, volunteering for an association, etc.) and, before, the transmission of faith within family (see for example Assor, Cohen-Malayev, Kaplan, Friedman, 2005).